Kobardon - Lingua Franca used in Frédauon

[Creyeditor]

Conative Alternations

Some combinations of verbs and objects can participate in the conative alternations. This is an alternation between an transitive verb plus a direct object (non-conative) and an intransitive verb plus an indirect object (conative). Note that indirect objects have the same semantic role but are marked with the particle ut. The regular structure implies a change of state, a successful action or telicity, whereas the conative structure implies a failure, a sense of trying, or atelicity. The construction is antipassive-like, but the verb is not marked with a special affix. This construction also influences aspect. Conative constructions are often associated with an imperfective interpretation, whereas non-conative constructions are associated with a perfective interpretation. The aspectual interpretation is very prominent in post-classical Kobardon.

(39) Example of the conative alternation
a. Aiem ut koteti.
a-iem ut ko-tet-i
1SG.S-run to 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF
`I try to catch up with a neighbour of mine.'
b. Aiemo koteti.
a-iem-o ko-tet-i.
1SG.S-run-3.O 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF
`I (out)run with a neighbour of mine.'

[Omzinesý]

Conative Alternations

Some combinations of verbs and objects can participate in the conative alternations. This is an alternation between an transitive verb plus a direct object (non-conative) and an intransitive verb plus an indirect object (conative). Note that indirect objects have the same semantic role but are marked with the particle ut. The regular structure implies a change of state, a successful action or telicity, whereas the conative structure implies a failure, a sense of trying, or atelicity. The construction is antipassive-like, but the verb is not marked with a special affix. This construction also influences aspect. Conative constructions are often associated with an imperfective interpretation, whereas non-conative constructions are associated with a perfective interpretation. The aspectual interpretation is very prominent in post-classical Kobardon.

(39) Example of the conative alternation
a. Aiem ut koteti.
a-iem ut ko-tet-i
1SG.S-run to 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF
`I try to catch up with a neighbour of mine.'
b. Aiemo koteti.
a-iem-o ko-tet-i.
1SG.S-run-3.O 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF
`I (out)run with a neighbour of mine.'

Nice that Kobardon is still active!

Semantically the constructions resemble control and noncontrol forms in some Amerindian languages. But it's better to do that syntactically. Syntax is too little used.

[Creyeditor]

Thanks
It's actually inspired by English again. In English there is a contrast between 'I shot the bear' and 'I shot at the bear'. In Kobardon it's just slightly more systematic.

[Creyeditor]

Just something I forgot on my last post.

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Differential Object Marking and the Conative Alternations
The interaction of the conative alternation with differential object marking leads to some exceptions from the general pattern. Since constructions with transitive verbs and a direct object are not possible for definite human object, a form with an intransitive verb and a definite human indirect object is ambigious between a conative and a non-conative interpretation. Similarly, constructions with a transitive verb and an inanimate indefinite direct object are also ambigious, since the corresponding intransitive verb + indirect object construction is ungrammatical.

Transitive verb + direct object
definite human: impossible
indefinite human: non-conative
animate: non-conativ
definite inanimate: non-conative
indefinite inanimate ambigious

Intransitive verb + indirect object
definite human: ambigious
indefinite human: conative
animate: conativ
definite inanimate: conative
indefinite inanimate: impossible

[Creyeditor]

Ditransitive verbs

Kobardon does not feature any proper ditransitive verbs. No verb has two direct objects. Verbs of transfer and similar actions either allow a recipient argument or a theme argument as their direct object. No verb allows both arguments.

(40) Examples of verbs of transfer and verbs of speech
a. Verbs with an inherent theme object
akébo vt I say s.th, I tell s.th., I state s.th., I remark s.th, I utter s.th., I declare s.th.
aiúrzbo vt I give s.th., I contribute s.th, I donate s.th
abreso[/b][/b] vt I reveal s.th., I disclose s.th., I show s.th.
abrófo vt I report on s.th.
b. Verbs with an inherent recipient object
abardo vt I speak to someone, I talk to someone, I converse with someone
apuko vt I teach s.o., I instruct s.o., I tutor s.o., I train s.o., I educate s.o.
agomo vt I advise s.o., I counsel s.o.
asófinto vt I whisper to s.o.
asónto vt I shout at s.o., I scream at s.o.

In order to express such a meaning, an argument has to be added as an indirect object. Theme roles are added by the particle et about. Recipient roles can be introduced using the particle ut to. In both cases the new prepositional phrases need to follow the object. Which argument is coded as the direct object of the verb is lexically conditioned, i.e. it depends on the verb in question. Conversely, the indirect object that can be added will be a recipient only for verbs with inherent theme direct objects, and a theme will be added to verbs with inherent recipient direct objects.

(41) Examples with added themes and added recipients
a. Akébo mífirba ut kotetibus.
a-kéb-o mífirb-a ut ko-tet-ibus.
1SG.S.tell-3.O joke-INDEF.SG to 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.DEF
`I told my neighbour a joke.'
b. Abardo koteti et mífirba.
a-bard-o ko-tet-i et m\=\i firb-a.
1SG.S-speak-3.O 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF about joke-SG.INDEF \\
`I spoke to a neighbour of mine about a joke.'

These indirect objects can variably be ordered with other adverbials. This means that they can be split from the direct object.

(42) Examples with split added themes and added recipients
a. Akébo mífirba fridat ut kotetibus.
a-kéb-o mífirb-a fri-at ut ko-tet-ibus
1SG.S-tell-3.O joke yesterday to 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.DEF
`I told my neighbour a joke yesterday.'
b. Abardo koteto fridat et mífirba.
a-bard-o ko-tet-i frida-t et mífirb-a
1SG.S-speak-3.O 1SG.POSS-neighbour-SG.INDEF yesterday-SG about joke-SG.INDEF
`I spoke to a neighbour of mine about a joke yesterday.'

[Creyeditor]

tl;dr on verbal syntax:

• A syntactic distinction between semantically (potentially) identical direct (unmarked) and indirect object position (introduced by a particle).
• Indirect objects are different in that adverbials can intervene between them and their verb, plus indirect objects can be cognate objects.
• For some verbs, adverbials can also intervene between a direct object and a modifying particle phrase.
• There are complex alternations between direct and indirect objects based on definiteness, animacy, and telicity.
• Ditransitive verbs have either the theme or the recipient as the indirect object.

[Creyeditor]

Adjectives
Attributive adjectives can precede or follow the noun they modify. The distinction between the two positions is based on restrictiveness. Restrictive adjectives are those that help identify the referent of a noun. They restrict the set of possible referents and provide crucial information for identifying them. Restrictive adjectives always follow their head noun.

(43) Restrictive adjectives
a. Gomon iépan
gom-on iép-an
parliament-SG.DEF previous-SG.DEF
`the previous parliament'
b. Negedagon griban
ne-ge<da>g-on grib-an
2.POSS-cloth<aug>-DEF.SG nice.to.touch-DEF.SG
`my soft jacket'

Non-restrictive adjectives on the other hand provide additional information on their head noun, which is not crucial for identifying them. The information is not meant to help restricting the set of possible referents. Non-restrictive adjectives precede their head noun.

(44) Non-restrictive adjectives
a. Bukan kogirenzon
buk-an ko-girenz-on
well_known-SG.DEF 1.POSS-populism-SG.DEF
`my populism, which is well-known'
b. Gruran unikirnon puka
grur-an uni-kirn-on puk-a
serpentine-SG.DEF 3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF
`The serpent-like finger of a teacher.'

Adjectives include words that refer to number or quantity, i.e. numerals and quatifiers. These can in principle also occur before or after the noun. In practice they mostly precede them.

(45) Quantifying adjectives
a. Kēnkan vīrnon desōnt.
kēnk-an vīrn-on de-sōnt
all-SG.DEF crowd-SG.DEF 3SG.S-shout
`All the people shouted.'
b. Nērgan vīrnon desōnt.
nērg-an vīrn-on de-sōnt
many-SG.DEF crowd-SG.DEF 3SG.S-shout
`Many of the people shouted.'

Adjectives can also show marking for comparison. Comparison is usually expressed using the elative-augmentative form of an adjective. Recall that elative-augmentative is formed with the post-nuclear infix <tu>. In isolation, this form expresses a sense of being `very X', where X is the modified adjective. A comparative construction can be built by introducing a standard of comparison. The standard of comparison is expressed by a prepositional phrase introduced by the particle in from.

(46) Elative + in from as a comparative
Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan in drinza.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru\mangles{tu}r-an in drinz-a
3.POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF from swamp_eel-SG.INDEF
`The finger of a teacher is more serpentine than a swamp eel.'

The elative is often also used instead of a superlative form. If a more concrete superlative form is neccessary, a special standard of comparison in kénkon than all can be used. This parallel to English phrases such as `better than everyone'.

(47) Simple Elative or Elative + in from + kénkon the entirety
a. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru\mangles{tu}r-an
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF
`The finger of a teacher is the most sepertine.'
b. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan in kénkon.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru<tu>r-an in kénk-on
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF from entirety-DEF.SG
`The finger of a teacher is the most sepertine of (them) all.'

The standard of comparison can be freely ordered with respect to other adverbials. This is true for comparative and superlative constructions. This is exemplified with the negative adverb in (48).

(48) Ordering of adverbials and standards of comparison
a. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan sirat in drinza.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru<tu>r-an sira-t in drinz-a
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF NEG-SG from swamp_eel-SG.INDEF
`The finger of a teacher is not more serpentine than a swamp eel.'
b. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan in drinza sirat.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru<tu>r-an in drinz-a sira-t
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF from swamp_eel-SG.INDEF NEG-SG
`The finger of a teacher is not more serpentine than a swamp eel.'
c. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan sirat in kénkon.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru<tu>r-an sira-t in kénk-on
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF NEG-SG from entirety-DEF.SG
`The finger of a teacher is not the most sepertine of (them) all.'
d. Unikirnon puka demiio gruturan in kénkon sirat.
uni-kirn-on puk-a de-mii-o gru<tu>r-an in kénk-on sira-t
3POSS-finger-DEF.SG teacher-SG.INDEF 3SG.S-COP.ADJ-3.O serpentine<AUG.EL>-SG.DEF from entirety-DEF.SG NEG-SG
`The finger of a teacher is not the most sepertine of (them) all.'

[Omzinesý]

Nice that Kobardon is still active!

[Creyeditor]

Thank you I hope some people are still reading my dry walls of text

[Creyeditor]

Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases are introduced by particles and can modify nouns. This use of particles can be described as prepositional in that they closely mirror adpositional meanings in other languages. Prepositions precede the noun phrase they belong to. Prepositional phrases modify a noun phrase that precedes them. Prepositional phrases are different from adverbial clauses in that prepositional phrases only consist of a possibly complex noun phrase.

(49) Example of a prepositional phrase
Pukus ik genzon
puk-us ik genz-on
teacher-PL.DEF in tavern-SG.DEF
`the teachers in the tavern'

Relational nouns can make a locational relation more specific. They are modified by a possessor that acts as the ground. Prepositions precede the complex nominal phrase then.

(50) Example of a relational noun
Pukus et unidrimfon genzon
puk-us et uni-drimf-on genz-on
teacher-PL.DEF at 3.POSS-front-SG.DEF tavern-SG.DEF
`the teachers in front of the tavern'

[Creyeditor]

The post on adjectives made me realize that large parts of this should not go in the nominal symtax part and should probably be added to the section on copular clauses. I also decided that complex adjectival attributive construction (the very big man, the proud-of-his-son dad, the larger-than-me woman) will need to use relative clauses. That means I need to expand my section on relative clauses before posting it.